Blog #39: Brown V. Board of Education

Plessy V. Ferguson ruled that racial segregation was legal as long as the facilities for blacks and whites were equal. This case established a "separate but equal" policy that did not change until Brown V. Board of Education.

Brown V. Board of Education was the beginning of the Civil Rights Movement in America. Leading up to the case, the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) challenged segregation laws in public schools. In 1951, Oliver Brown filed a suit against the Board of Education in Topeka, Kansas, after his daughter was denied entrance into an all-white elementary school. He claimed that the black schools were not equal to the white schools, and that such segregation violated the 14th Amendment. The U.S. District Court of Kansas agreed that the segregation had a poor affect on African Americans, but argued that it still upheld the "separate but equal" policy.

The Brown V. Board of Education case combined both Brown's case and four other cases related to school segregation. On May 17, 1954, new Chief Justice Earl Warren stated that "separate but equal" is not a doctrine that stands in public education, because segregated schools are unequal. The Court ruled that the plaintiffs were being "deprived of the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the 14th Amendment."

This decision ultimately inspired integration in places beyond public schools, and many other African Americans such as Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King Jr. began boldly fighting for their equality.

Linda Brown

Norman Rockwell's painting of Linda Brown

Brown V. Board of Education helped to end segregation in schools and marked the beginning of the Civil Rights movement. A year after this case, Rosa Parks sat in the "white section" of a bus in an attempt to help end segregation everywhere- not just in schools. This led to many more equality movements that eventually brought the Jim Crow Laws to an end.

Blog #38: Truman Doctrine

Truman begins by stating that the Greek government has asked for financial assistance in order to preserve its freedom. He states that Greece is poor and has suffered invasion, internal issues, and enemy occupation for years. After the Germans destroyed everything Greece had, the nation became in serious need of resources and money. Truman mentions that Greece also asked for American administrators, economists, and technicians to help it use the financial aid wisely. He says that the United Nations is investigating border violations near Greece as well, and that there is no other country Greece can turn to for help.
Additionally, Truman mentions that Turkey needs help modernizing, which is necessary in order for it to maintain its national integrity.
This leads Truman to explain that the United Nations must help nations like Greece and Turkey. He says that far too often countries do not choose a path of freedom, and therefore he would like to assist those who are willing to be free.
Truman believes that the failure of Greece as a democratic nation would effect the rest of the world. He believes that if this happened, discouragement and failure would spread to other countries who are striving to maintain freedom and independence as well. He believes that helping these nations would be an investment worth the freedom and peace that it would produce. He also mentions that the Legislative and Executive branches of the government must work together in this time of need.
In face of the large responsibility the United States is presented with (to assist countries who are in need), Truman in confident that Congress will not hesitate to take care of these issues.

President Truman realized that although it was not "order" to aid Greece and Turkey after WWII, it was a necessity because it would help maintain peace within the world and prevent those nations from resorting to communism.

The Marshall Plan was very similar to the Truman Doctrine, yet rather than being aimed at aiding only Greece and Turkey, it was put in place to help all of Europe. This picture shows men standing beside the first cargo of Caribbean sugar that was to be shipped under to Marshall Doctrine.

Blog #37: FDR's Executive Order 9066

Roosevelt begins his declaration of Executive Order 9066 by stating that the United States must be protected at all costs. He then goes on to say that he gives the Secretary of War the authority to enforce this Order. In other words, he will allow the Secretary of War to establish military areas that will contain people who are a possible threat to the nation. These people will receive transportation, food, shelter, and whatever else is necessary. Roosevelt mentions that he will allow the Secretary of War or appointed Military Commander to do whatever is needed to enforce the rules within these military zones, whether it includes Federal troops or other Federal Agencies. He then authorizes all Executive Departments, Federal Agencies, and other independent establishments to assist the Secretary of War by providing medical aid, food, clothing, transportation, etc. Finally, Roosevelt ends by stating that Executive Order 9066 will not modify or limit Executive Order No. 8972 or the Federal Bureau of Investigation.

I understand why Americans were so paranoid after the attack on Pearl Harbor, but it was not right for the United States to put its very own citizens into confined military areas and accuse them of being enemies. This was horrible, because in reality, many American Japanese were disappointed in Japan and by no means supported such an attack. Although Americans were blinded by grief and paranoia, that is no excuse for turning on their very own citizens. In fact, in a time like that it is especially important that all Americans- of all heritages- come together as one and fight the true threat at hand- not each other.

Executive Order 9066 authorized the Secretary of War to create military zones for the Japanese Americans, who many viewed as a threat to America after Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor.

Executive Order 9066 ended up creating many military zones that held innocent American Japanese people. The affects that this Order had on these people is reflected in "Home was a Horse Stall" (see blog #35). This Order forced many American Japanese to burn their valuable Japanese heirlooms, live in confined spaces, and be accused of supporting the attack on Pearl Harbor- which they did not support at all. 

Blog #36: FDR's Declaration of War

FDR begins his Declaration by stating that December 7, 1941, is "a date which will live in infamy" (a phrase that has become a familiar part of our WWII lexicon). He then went on to state that before the attack, the United States had been considering terms of peace with Japan, and there had been no hints of war. Even when Japan replied to an American message by saying that their diplomatic relations should not be continued, there was no suggestion of violence in the slightest. Nevertheless, Japan had gone out of its way to deceive the United States. It did so by expressing hope for continued peace only to keep America away from its true intentions. The very distance from Hawaii to Japan indicates that Japan had been planning to attack Pearl Harbor for quite a while. FDR then listed other nations that Japan attacked on that same day, and stated that many Americans understood that their nation was in danger and needed to be protected. FDR said that not only would all measures be taken to defend the United States, but it would be made certain that a similar act of violence would never happen again. Finally, he asked Congress to declare that since Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor, a state of war had existed between the United States and the Japanese Empire.

There was one person who voted against the war in both houses. This was a woman named Jeanette Rankin. As a result, people accused her of supporting the Japanese, and her nickname became "Japanette Rankin."

FDR delivers his Declaration of War on December 8, 1941.

Jeanette Rankin voted against the war, and as a result, she became known as "Japanette" Rankin.

Although I am sure many people have this same synthesis, it is difficult not to see the similarities between the Declaration of War on Japan in 1941 and the Declaration of War on Germany in 1917. FDR declared war on Japan in response to its unprovoked attack on Pearl Harbor. Similarly, Germany's violation of America's neutrality during the Great War (attacks on U.S. ships, Zimmerman Telegram) were unprovoked, and led President Wilson to take action against such a threat.

Blog #35: Home was a Horse Stall

Japanese internment camps were put into place by Executive Order 9066, or the Civilian Exclusion Order No. 27, after the bombing of Pearl Harbor. This was very unfair to Japanese Americans, because they were forced out of their homes, when in reality, many of them did not support the Japanese bombing at all. The majority of Japanese Americans were actually saddened that their people had become the enemy, and they lost much pride in their Japanese roots.

Here are my reactions to Sox's story:

1. The story about Sox is sad, because although she did not support the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, people were still suspicious about her family and people with similar heritage.

2. It is disappointing that thousands of American citizens were forced to sleep in horse stalls and burn their valued Japanese treasures. The fact that Sox was so happy to give her possessions to someone else (rather than burn it) really demonstrates how much Japanese Americans did not want their past to be lost.

3. I understand how tensions were high within the U.S. at this time, and I understand how people were quite paranoid, but the fact that so many people suffered as a result is not a good thing at all. It is frustrating that the Kataokas had worked so hard to have a good life in America, and now it was all taken away based on an assumption that was not true.

In 1988, this story was somewhat "repaired" when people pushed for laws that would prevent something like internment camps from ever happening in America again. As a result, the Civil Liberties Act of 1988 was established. This gave each surviving internee $20,000 to make up for their hardships. It also gave Alaskans compensation who had been relocated as a result of a Japanese invasion. Additionally, this act created a fund for teaching the public about the internment experience.

Notice for Japanese Americans to evacuate the area (preparing them to move to internment camps)

                                        

                                              Japanese Americans eating in an internment camp

After the attack on Pearl Harbor, people were paranoid that everyone with Japanese heritage was an enemy, and as a result, Japanese people were excluded from society. In a way, this is similar to when in the 18th and 19th centuries, black people were segregated from whites. In both instances, although not for the exact same reasons, a group of people were segregated from the rest of Americans and were forced to live as inferiors.

Blog #34: FDR's First Inaugural

Roosevelt begins his Address by stating that America must not shy away from the present issues that are a result of the Great Depression. He explains that just as it has done in the past, the country must face these economic problems with strength. He then goes on to list the issues, which include rising taxes, overproduction on farms, unemployment, and more. He says that although America has plenty of resources, companies have failed to use them wisely, causing the previously listed issues. He states that happiness does not come from the possession of money, but rather from the joy of achievement and creative effort. The nation requires not just moral change, but action to accomplish that change as well.
The first action that needs to be taken is that the government needs to decrease unemployment. By doing this, the economy could once again thrive, and the use of natural resources could be stimulated and reorganized. The second action that must be taken is to fix overpopulation by reducing prices of land/homes, raising prices on agricultural products, unifying relief activities, etc. Finally, to prevent further economic trouble, there must be strict supervision over economic activities, an end to speculation of other people's money, and a provision for a strong and effective currency.
To accomplish these tasks, Roosevelt states that a new Congress must be created and that he must have assistance from several states. At this point in time, American economic issues need to come before international affairs in order to keep the country strong.
At one point, Roosevelt mentions his "good neighbor policy" and says that the United States will behave like a good neighbor by respecting both itself and the other countries of the world.
He explains that the American people must be willing to sacrifice for the good of the common discipline, and that they must be willing to strike down problems that are presented.
He notes that the Constitution has always allowed America to prosper, and that because of such principles, America is the strongest nation in the world. However, he says that if the course of action he created in order to fix the current crisis fails, then he will ask Congress to establish a broad Executive power to wage war against the economic problems within the nation.
Roosevelt finishes his Address by stating that the people depend on him to fix the issues at hand, and with faith, strength, and hope, he gladly takes on that responsibility.

Roosevelt's most famous quote from his First Inaugural Address is: "the only thing we have to fear is fear itself."

Franklin D. Roosevelt gives his First Inaugural Address

Roosevelt's First Inaugural Address reminds me of Winston Churchill and his speeches, especially the one in which he says "we shall fight on the beaches." I find the two speeches similar, because both Roosevelt and Churchill were encouraging the American people not to fear the present issues, but rather to fight the problems with courage. The biggest difference, however, is that Roosevelt was referring to the economic issues of the Great Depression, while Churchill was referring to the issue of WWII.

Blog #33: Kellogg-Briand Peace Pact

After the Great War, many nations desired peace and came up with multiple methods in order to obtain international peace. Aristide Briand, the French Minister of Foreign Affairs, proposed a peace pact that would serve as an agreement between the U.S. and France stating that war would be outlawed between them. As good as Briand's intentions were, President Coolidge and Secretary of State Franklin B. Kellogg did not agree with this. They believed that this would obligate the U.S. to protect France in the future. Instead, they suggested an extension of the pact in which all other nations would be invited to join in outlawing wars of aggression (not including self-defense).
This proposal gained a large amount of support, and the final version of the pact stated that war was outlawed as a national policy and that disputes must be settled by peaceful means. The U.S. Senate ratified the pact in a vote of 85-1 after it established that its participation did not limit its right to defend itself or require it to fight any country that might violate the agreement.
However, it soon became clear that the Kellogg-Briand Peace Pact (aka the Pact of Paris) could never be a success. This is because it was too difficult to prevent countries from going to war. For example, in the Mukden Incident, the Japanese invaded Manchuria, but since the U.S. and the League of Nations did not want to go to war, they did not even take action to enforce the pact. Additionally, there was some confusion surrounding the definition of "self-defense." Ultimately, such an agreement was too idealistic to prevent WWII and other conflicts that followed.

-Total # of countries to sign the pact: 62

-What would need to happen to enforce Pact: The involved countries would have to agree never to cause conflict with each other again. They would need to ignore their disagreements and refrain from defending themselves, because that would likely cause a greater conflict or even war.

The Kellogg-Briand Peace Pact is depicted in this cartoon as exactly what it turned out to be. The pact was originally perceived to be the answer to achieving peace in the world, but it blew up right in the world's face when it failed to prevent WWII and other conflicts that followed.

The Kellogg-Briand Peace Pact can be compared to Wilson's 14 Points, because both were extremely idealistic attempts at peace. They were both created with good intentions (Wilson and Coolidge both wanted peace rather than war), yet both failed to prevent future conflict (especially because the 14 Points weren't even passed).

Blog #32: Wilson's 14 Points of Peace

Wilson opens his 14 points by stating that the world should no longer keep secrets from each other, but rather be open to achieve peace. He mentions that the United States entered the Great War to create a world fit to live in, and that the war must immediately be ended. He goes on to list the only ways he believes that peace can be achieved- his 14 points.

I believe that Wilson's 14 Points are somewhat idealistic. For example, his second point mentions that the sea should be free for navigation by all nations in both peace and war. This is not realistic, because during times of war, rules are often bent, and certain forces can take control of parts of the sea or prevent others from going certain places in order to defend themselves. Another example is when Wilson sums up every point by stating that the nations cannot be "separated in interest or divided in purpose." This is not realistic considering that people have varying opinions and often do not agree on how to do certain things.

Point #14 calls for "a general association of nations" that would be useful to form agreements about political independence as well as territorial rights for states. This was later called the League of Nations.

Within the Treaty of Versailles, some of Wilson's 14 Points can be found. Although the Treaty is harsher on the Germans than the 14 Points, there are still many similarities between the two. One of these similarities is the requirement for Germany to give back the territory it had taken, which is also listed in point #8. Another similarity is that Germany was required to join the League of Nations once it proved its peace. This is similar to point #14, which called for an international committee made up of nations that would maintain peace. Finally, point #13 (free sea navigation for Poland) is found in the Treaty of Versailles, because a Polish corridor was built so that Poland could have access to the sea.

This political cartoon represents Wilson's 14 Points.  Many people saw them as the only way to peace.

Wilson's 14 Points remind me of Benjamin Franklin's 13 virtues, because just as Wilson believed his points were the way to peace in the world, Franklin believed his virtues were the way to peace in personal life.

Blog #31: Schenck V. United States

The Schenck V. United States issue began when socialists Charles Schenck and Elizabeth Baer handed out leaflets that said the draft violated the 13th Amendment, which outlaws involuntary servitude. They hoped to urge the public to disobey the draft peacefully. However, Schenck was charged with conspiracy to violate the Espionage Act of 1917, and he argued that such a conviction violated his 1st Amendment right.

Justice Oliver Wendall Holmes responded by saying that during wartime, the courts must obey the government regardless of constitutional rights, a rule that is part of the "clear and present danger doctrine." He compared handing out the leaflets to shouting "Fire!" in a crowded theatre, which is not permitted under the 1st Amendment. In fact, handing out the leaflets posed as a disruption to the drafting process, and therefore it was not deemed legal.

Justice Oliver Wendall Holmes

In Gitlow V. New York, Benjamin Gitlow distributed 16,000 copies of a document that called for a communist revolution in the United States and urged labor strikes/class action to take over the state's power. However, similar to Schenck V. United States, free speech was limited in this situation (it was a "clear and present danger") and Gitlow was arrested for violating New York's "criminal anarchy" law (made it a felony to encourage overthrowing a government by force/violence).

Blog #27: MLK, Jr.'s "I Have A Dream" Speech

The Civil Rights Act of 1963 ended segregation in public places and banned employment segregation based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. Martin Luther King Jr. was not hesitant to show his support for this Act, and considered it a "second emancipation." He also gives this speech to encourage other African Americans. He says that in their fight for freedom, they must not resort to physical violence, but rather protest with continued hope and faith for the future. He also references the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution, pointing out that it states "all men are created equal."

Some of the dreams that MLK Jr. expresses I will list below:
-"my four children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character"
-"one day in the state of Alabama, whose governor's lips are presently dripping with the words of interposition and nullification, will be transformed into a situation where little black boys and black girls will be able to join hands with little white boys and white girls and walk together as sisters and brothers"
-"one day every valley will be exalted, every hill and mountain shall be made low, the rough places will be made plain, and the crooked places will be made straight, and the glory of the Lord shall be revealed, and all flesh shall see it together"
-"one day on the red hills of Georgia the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slaveowners will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood"

Martin Luther King Jr. giving his "I Have A Dream" Speech in Washington D.C. (August 28, 1963)

In a way, MLK Jr.'s "I Have A Dream" Speech can be compared to the Women's Suffrage Movement, because both were in support of greater equality for a group of people (MLK Jr.'s Speech- African Americans; Women's Suffrage Movement- Women and their right to vote).

Blog #30: Wilson's First Inaugural

President Wilson begins his Inaugural Address by stating that the government has become Democratic, and he goes on to describe what this means for the country. He says that with this new party, the Nation will change the practices that it now recognizes as immoral. He uses the example of industrial achievements, and explains that although it produced great success, people forgot to consider the negatives: the people mistreated, the poor, the cruelties of the work place, etc. He says that the government is selfish in cases such as this, and it forgets to consider the vast majority of people. This reflects progressive beliefs, because in the Progressive Era, many reforms were made to correct the wrongs within America. President Wilson is addressing this in a broad sense, stating that there are many things that need to be reformed, which is now being realized because people are becoming aware of both positives and negatives. However, he mentions that we must make these reforms "to correct the evil without impairing the good." In other words, although the Nation should get rid of what is immoral, it should continue what is positive and successful. He finishes by stating that America must fight for the liberty and justice it was founded upon, set aside politics and disagreement, and do what is right.

Woodrow Wilson delivers his First Inaugural Address

The Emancipation Proclamation shifted the Union's purpose during the Civil War from fighting to preserve the Union to fighting to free the slaves. This is similar to Wilson's First Inaugural Address in that it was also part of a shifting viewpoint in America, and people began to realize that there were wrongs in the country that needed to be reformed.

Blog #29: Clayton Anti-Trust Act

The Clayton Anti-Trust Act started when in the 1912 Presidential Election, all three parties agreed that the Supreme Court had been way too lenient on large corporations and that antitrust laws needed to be strengthened. This Act allowed the government to have more power over large companies. They could now prosecute trusts (no more laissez-faire), outlaw price fixing, terminate the ability for a person to own two or more competing companies, prohibit any corporation from owning stock in a competing company, and exempt labor unions from persecution. All of these guidelines helped even the business "playing field," making companies more honest and fair and decreasing problems within the country.

The Clayton Anti-Trust Act ultimately strengthened legislation of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act of 1890. It was far more detailed than the Sherman Anti-Trust Act, yet was similar in that its main purpose was to get rid of trusts. Both Acts called for an end to large corporations that unfairly squashed its competition, and stated that penalties would be given for violators of the Act. However, while the Sherman Anti-Trust Act focused on the broader idea that monopolies were not allowed and would be met with punishment, the Clayton Anti-Trust Act stated the specifics such as what specifically companies were not allowed to do (which I mentioned in the above paragraph). Knowing this, I believe the Clayton Anti-Trust Act had a greater impact than the Sherman Anti-Trust Act, because by giving specific rules that corporations could not violate, it was probably more difficult for companies to find ways around the act. For example, with the Sherman Anti-Trust Act, there was little success in helping labor unions because the Act did not specifically address that issue. However, with the Clayton Anti-Trust Act, this issue could be addressed. Overall, the Clayton Anti-Trust Act made the business world a fair place.

The Clayton Anti-Trust Act is similar to the Federal Trade Commission and Department of Justice, because both help enforce the laws written in the Clayton Anti-Trust Act. Their job was to regulate unfair or deceptive business practices (without involving courts) in order to make the business world a more honest place.

The Clayton Anti-Trust Act destroyed trusts even more thoroughly than the Sherman Anti-Trust Act did. This political cartoon demonstrates the destruction of trusts by the Federal Trade Commission, which enforced the Act.

Blog #28: Keating-Owen Child Labor Act

The Keating-Owen Child Labor Act was created to address the cruel system of child labor and prevent children from having to work in brutal conditions. It attempted to stop the trade of products made through child labor (specifically from children between the ages of 14 and 16) in order to achieve improved work life for these children. For factories, shops, and canneries, products could not be made if they were made by a child 14 or younger, and for other workplaces, products could not be sold if children under 16 worked more than 8 hours per day.
Although this law had good intentions, it was negative because allowed the government to control what products companies could sell, which took away much of their power. What is worse, this act did not take away the system of child labor, so while children may have had slightly improved working conditions, child labor had not disappeared at all.

Photo by Muckraker Lewis Hines reveals the dangerous conditions children faced in factories, as it pictures two young boys standing on machinery.

Photo by Muckraker Lewis Hines shows two young girls working laboriously in a field.

Photo by Muckraker Lewis Hines pictures a young girl inside of a factory where she is forced to work, and she does not look too happy about being there.